Comparative investigations were undertaken in five forest fragments (Chawia, Fururu, Mbololo, Ngangao and Vuria) of varying sizes in Taita Hills, Kenya to examine the effects of forest edge on soil moisture, nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium, pH, electrical conductivity and organic carbon (hereafter referred to as environmental variables) along forest edge-interior gradient and relate them to tree species distribution and abundance. For each of the forest fragment, belt transects proportional to the forest area were established for data collection.Within each belt transect, plots of 10.0×10.0m were systematically established and replicated three times in astratum at an interval of between 10.0 and 50.0m along forest edge-interior gradient depending on the size of the forest fragment for assessment of environmental variables and tree species distribution and abundance.Results showed significant edge effect on the distribution and abundance of dominant and adaptable tree species i.e. Macaranga conglomerata, Albizia gummifera, Syzygium guineense, Xymalos monospora, Tabernaemontanastapfiana and Maesa lanceolata (p=.012). Edge effect was also noted among the following environmental variables; soil pH in Mbololo (p < .001), Ngangao (p < .001) and Vuria (p=.042), electrical conductivity(p=.048) and nitrogen (p=.038) in Fururu and potassium in Mbololo (p=.002) and Ngangao (p=.035). The distance from the forest edge influenced the distribution and abundance of 36.7% and 36.4% of most abundant species and less abundant species respectively. The environmental variables-tree species relationships established in this study could be utilized in selecting native tree species for rehabilitation programs to restore the degraded sites within the forest fragments.

Comparative investigations were undertaken in five forest fragments (Chawia, Fururu, Mbololo, Ngangao and Vuria) of varying sizes in Taita Hills, Kenya to examine the effects of forest edge on soil moisture, nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium, pH, electrical conductivity and organic carbon (hereafter referred to as environmental variables) along forest edge-interior gradient and relate them to tree species distribution and abundance. For each of the forest fragment, belt transects proportional to the forest area were established for data collection.Within each belt transect, plots of 10.0×10.0m were systematically established and replicated three times in astratum at an interval of between 10.0 and 50.0m along forest edge-interior gradient depending on the size of the forest fragment for assessment of environmental variables and tree species distribution and abundance.Results showed significant edge effect on the distribution and abundance of dominant and adaptable tree species i.e. Macaranga conglomerata, Albizia gummifera, Syzygium guineense, Xymalos monospora, Tabernaemontanastapfiana and Maesa lanceolata (p=.012). Edge effect was also noted among the following environmental variables; soil pH in Mbololo (p < .001), Ngangao (p < .001) and Vuria (p=.042), electrical conductivity(p=.048) and nitrogen (p=.038) in Fururu and potassium in Mbololo (p=.002) and Ngangao (p=.035). The distance from the forest edge influenced the distribution and abundance of 36.7% and 36.4% of most abundant species and less abundant species respectively. The environmental variables-tree species relationships established in this study could be utilized in selecting native tree species for rehabilitation programs to restore the degraded sites within the forest fragments.

The science of climate change looks at how the Earth’s climate has changed over the years and the causes as well as the possible future changes which could result from human interference with the climate system. Understanding how climate influences society and how humans influence climate has become more urgent now than ever before. Information and knowledge generated and provided by climate change science forms the basis in shaping policies and agreements. The cross-cutting nature of the problems requires the engagement of everyone at all levels. It is therefore important to have some basic understanding of the science of climate change in order to appreciate the seriousness of the problem Chapter one of the this module explores the science of climate change. This involves a description of the concepts of weather and climate by clearly defining and differentiating between them. The elements of weather and climate are also well analyzed. The difference between the concept of climate variability and climate change is also discussed in detail. In addition, the types, sources and effects of of GHGs are discussed. Chapter two discusses the causes of climate change. Both natural and human-indiuced drivers of climate change are decribed in detail. Under natural drivers, aspects of volcanic eruptions and wildfire are discussed. Under antropogenic drivers, land use changes, use of fossils fuels and also the urbanization are discussed. Chapter three examines climate change and ecosystem. The disturbances of ecosystems under climate change are addressed. Various indicators of ecosystem disturbances are explained and also the challenges and opportunities of climate change on ecosystem. Chapter four focuses on vulnerability to and impact of climate change. Various approaches of vulnerability assessments are discussed and from this chapter it is clear to determine the extent of vulnerability,using socioeconomic or ecological assessments. Chapter five, finally, discusses the different UN conventions on the envrioment. It is important to note that these conventions play an important role in ensuring that environment is well maintained and protected from human induced actions. They are normally open for participation by the international community as a whole, or by a large number of States. This module covers five chapters as follows:

•  Basics of Climate Change
• Causes of Climate Change
• Climate Change and Ecosystems
• Vulnerability to and Impact of Climate Change
• United Nations Conventions on the Environment

Forest plantation development in the study countries of Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda was, in most cases, preceded by species and provenance trials, mainly of exotic tree species, starting in the late 1800s in South Africa, then later in the early to mid 1900s in the rest of the region. Successful results from species and provenance trials led to large scale planting during the period 1920-1960, and also continued to broaden the species range and improve productivity of the various species.

The introduction of REDD+, AR-CDM, AFOLU/INDCs and voluntary carbon market related initiatives as market-based mechanisms aims at reducing global carbon emissions, enhancing environmental resilience and spurring economic growth and development. These mechanisms are attractive to the economies, sustainable environmental management, and livelihood improvements of African countries. The implementation of these market-based mechanisms has resulted in the greater availability of financing, transfer of technology and capacity building incentives that underpin GHG emissions reductions and enhancement of ecosystem resilience. Ultimately this leads to stable ecosystems in which sustainable development that leads to the improvement in peoples’ livelihoods would be ensured.

This paper discusses the potentials of meeting the wood demand and achieving SFM in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) through the establishment of forest plantations. The paper reviews forest plantation ownership and distribution patterns in SSA and the factors –silvicultural, ecological, and economic that affect supply and demand for wood at both domestic and international markets. The risk associated with investing in forest plantations and their susceptibility to pest and disease attacks are highlighted. But with sound silvicultural practices these fears are allayed. Ecological sustainability is in most situations ensured, but there are risks associated with burning logging slash after harvesting. It is found that efficiency in plantation management and success in achieving sustainable wood supply depends to a large extent on whether the plantations are owned and managed by the public or the private sector. Many public sector managed plantations are poorly managed and not profit-oriented. They have other environmental and social services and benefits as objectives. Many benefits from such activities are not easily quantifiable in monetary terms and therefore cannot be used to determine the profitability of the plantations. Thus, in financial analysis, most public sector owned and managed plantations are unprofitable and not economically viable because these important benefits are excluded in the calculations. Private owned forest plantations are well managed and aim at profit maximization and therefore integrate plantations to wood processing plants to improve the form and value of wood and make the wood products more competitive in both domestic and export markets. As a way forward, a number of actions are listed to ensure long-term viability of forest plantations in SSA.

Given the potential impacts of climate change on the commercial forestry sector, and the fact that such impacts can already be detected in Africa, the development and implementation of adaptation policies, measures and strategies are crucial. Although there is still uncertainty surrounding the magnitude and timing of climate change in the future, the negative impacts of this change are likely to be enormous. Thus, adaptation needs to occur in the immediate future. Processes need to be implemented now, as the time scales for these processes to take effect and be adopted are likely to be long in the case of plantation forestry. In implementing adaptation measures, a ‘no regrets’ approach ought to take priority. The measures implemented under a no regrets approach will have benefits which are equal to or exceed their cost to society, and will be of benefit regardless of climate change. Other adaptive interventions will include: a change in forestry practices to using and developing more heat and drought resistant species and hybrids; the use of native species ought to be encouraged since exotic species tend to negatively influence biodiversity; however, this should be balanced against aspects of productivity and brevity of rotation age, and thereby the undisputed economic advantage of plantations, which are main factors associated with the introduction of exotics; mixing species, to provide insurance against some impacts of climate change, with plantation forestry moving towards mixed cultures rather than the currently dominant monocultures; better matching of species to their optimal ecological range, that is, if the site is currently at the dry end of the species’ range, that species should no longer be planted there; giving consideration to climate change predictions when planning the future of African countries’ plantation forestry in terms of species and provenance selection, tending, management regimes, production, consumption and trade of forest products; the use of water harvesting methods to relieve water stress during the establishment stage in order to give seedlings and saplings a good start via irrigation. This intervention can be supplemented with the use of fertilizers and boosters in the early stages of the plantation establishment. The study and assessment of the extent of vulnerability of African forest and tree plantations to climate change and monitoring the effectiveness of any mitigation and/or adaptation intervention requires a scientific method consistent with how plantations have been established and managed in the past. Such a method requires the use of a sampling framework that can produce the information necessary to feed the policy/management process. For as long as forest plantations have been established, management has deployed the use of permanent sample plots (PSPs) as a key part of a monitoring framework. A temporary sample plot provides a snapshot of the attribute of interest, while a permanent sample plot allows for re-measurement over time that provides a dynamic picture of the attribute. Management of forest plantations in Africa has only put in place a few permanent sample plots to provide data for growth modelling, planning silvicultural interventions and harvesting cycles. A review in South African and Kenyan plantations found that the existing PSPs are inadequate even for plantation management purposes, mostly due to resource constraints. It is estimated that there exists less than 40% of the required number of PSPs in various states of management and monitoring. In the wake of mitigation programmes like Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+), permanent sample plots will be required to provide the necessary data for carbon accounting. Introduction of REDD+ in plantations in Africa will require a significant expansion of the number and location of the PSPs in order to obtain estimates of the carbon-relevant plantation attributes including below- and aboveground carbon density, detritus, products and decomposition profiles. Using a Kenyan study as a benchmark, it was estimated that in order to allow African plantations to fully participate in the REDD+ program, it will require at least 3000 PSPs to provide adequate data for aboveground biomass carbon stock for wall-to-wall monitoring, reporting and verification. It is recommended that each country with forest plantations establish a biometric department at the plantation management level that will be charged with the responsibility to establish an adequate number of PSPs, and to collect and transmit data to a central repository from which REDD+ stakeholders can have seamless access. A region or continent-wide network of these data centres and practitioners will reduce costs by cross sectional sharing of pertinent data.

Capacity building in forestry in all its forms is a central work area for the African Forest Forum (AFF). It was on this basis that AFF organized a workshop on capacity building and skills development in forestbased climate change adaptation and mitigation in Nairobi, Kenya on November 12-16, 2012, that drew 54 participants from selected academic, research and civil society institutions, as well as from the private sector and youth. The participants came from 22 countries, namely Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, Zambia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and Zimbabwe. It was also attended by staff from FAO and ICRAF. The workshop identified the training needs on addressing the relationship between forests and climate change for educational and related forestry based training institutions at professional and technical levels, as well as for informal groups that are mainly made up of civil society organizations and local communities. Training needs and modules to guide training were developed based on agro-ecological regions of Sub-Sahara Africa. These are arid and semi-arid regions, including Sahelian belt; the savannas and woodlands of West, Eastern and Southern Africa; and the rainforests of West and Central Africa. Separate analyses were done for Anglophone and Lusophone countries as a block, and for Francophone countries as another block, given the different educational systems in these two language blocks. These training modules therefore fill the gaps observed by the training institutions. In order to carry this work forward AFF organized, in 2013, four subregional workshops to first improve on the needs and contents of the modules as well as validating the same. The workshops also served as avenues to better orient/ retool staff from academic, research, extension and civil society organizations in key areas of science and practice of climate change as it relates to forests, and basing such training on these modules. A total of 111 people from academia, research, public sector, private sector, youth and civil society in Sub-Sahara Africa have been involved in the development and validation of the needs and the training modules. In 2013, AFF conducted country training using the modules in Ethiopia, Niger and Zambia; more countries will be covered in the near future. AFF first developed the teaching materials that will later be developed into specific compendiums. It would appear that there are no other institutions that are preparing such teaching materials for forestry training in Sub-Sahara Africa and on the same scope. AFF seeks to use, to the extent possible, XIV Training modules on forest based climate change adaptation, mitigation, carbon trading, and payment for other environmental services the capacity in the continent to develop local solutions to forestry problems; and teaching materials is one area where AFF will continue to engage the expertise on the continent to develop them. We welcome interested individuals and institutions to make full and free use of these training modules in their work.

Climate change is a major threat to achieving the poverty reduction aspirations of many African countries as well as to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is affecting rainfall patterns, water availability, sea levels, the dynamics of droughts and bushfire frequency. These are increasingly impacting woodland ecosystems, associated livelihoods, human health, agriculture productivity and biodiversity (Munishi et al., 2010; Kowero, 2011). Climate change will therefore adversely affect livelihoods, national incomes and the environment. While woodlands are affected by climate change, they also play key roles in mitigation and adaptation to climate change. These roles may include increasing the resilience of rural communities to climate change and support to species to adapt to changing climate by acting as refuge during adverse climate conditions. Woodlands also indirectly support economies to adapt to climate change by reducing costs of climate-related negative impacts, through provision of goods and services during extreme weather events, and by providing key assets for reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change. Woodlands play a major role in climate change mitigation as deforestation and forest degradation is estimated to contribute to about 18% of the global carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas - GHG) emissions and have considerable potential to mitigate emissions through carbon sequestration. The major objective of this work was to review available information on climate vulnerability of biophysical (i.e. soil, water, and biological resources) and socio-economic (i.e. human health, livelihoods, products, trade and development) systems in woodlands of Eastern and Southern Africa. The woodlands of Eastern and Southern Africa are of various types including Miombo Woodlands covering about one-third of the region, Terminalia-Combretum savannah woodlands, Mopane woodland and Zambezi Teak (Baikiaea plurijuga) woodland. Further the Acacia-Combretum woodlands in Zimbabwe and Acacia–Commiphora woodlands in Kenya and Tanzania form major woodland types. The Miombo ecosystem is one of the tropical wildernesses in the world covering about 3.6 million km2 and spanning ten countries in East, Central and Southern Africa (Munishi et al., 2011). Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the environment, and on socio-economic and related sectors, including water resources, agriculture and food security, human health, terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity, woodlands inclusive. The woodlands of Eastern and Southern Africa will be responding to variable rainfall in terms of seasonality and amounts with predominantly decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures (Munishi et al., 2010). Climate change scenarios for Africa include higher temperatures across the continent estimated to be increasing by 0.2°C per decade (Elagib and Mansell, 2000) and more erratic precipitation. Changes in rainfall patterns are likely to lead to severe water shortages and/or flooding while temperature increases will potentially severely increase rates of extinction for many habitats and species (up to 30 per cent with a 2°C rise in temperature). Water-related problems, already serious in the region, are likely to worsen as a result of climate change (AMCEN, 2011). Intense rainfall events will increase the incidence of flooding in many areas. At the same time, reduced run-off will exacerbate water stress and reduce the quality and quantity of water available for domestic, crop and livestock use. In a wider context the predicted impacts of climate change on water resources in woodlands of Eastern and Southern Africa indicate that by 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are projected to be exposed to increased water stress. Agricultural production, including access to food, in many Eastern and Southern African countries is projected to be severely compromised due to water scarcity which will further adversely affect food security and exacerbate malnutrition. The woodlands of Eastern and Southern Africa are diverse and such diverse vegetation would imply a variety of habitats and areas of high species diversity and endemism. Climate change impacts on the woodlands in this region will thus likely impact biodiversity and vulnerable endemic species. Major impacts of climate change on the woodlands include changes within some types and disappearance of others, and changes in species composition. Because climate is a primary determinant of species distributions and ecosystem processes, new climates may promote formation of new species associations and other ecological changes whereas changes in current climates may also increases the risk of extinction of species with narrow geographic or climatic distributions and disruption of existing communities. Eastern and Southern African woodlands are critical for the well

The main findings of a study on forest administration and related institutional arrangements (PFA) are highlighted. The relevance and changing roles of PFA in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries are covered in the context of new paradigm for sustainable forest management (SFM). The current weak capacities and low profiles of PFA in SSA countries are addressed and some recommendations are made on actions for positive changes. It is recommended that SSA countries should take appropriate steps to stabilize and strengthen their PFAs through improved governance and to actively participate in the emerging initiative on African forest law enforcement and governance (AFLEG). It is recommended that SSA countries should take immediate steps to mobilize additional resources for PFAs through forest income retention schemes, national forest funds/trusts and through collaboration with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector. It is also recommended that SSA countries should mobilize resources through continental and/or regional initiatives on capacity building for PFA.